Q.1: What is the role of progressivism in the philosophy of education? Which philosophy emerged a movement against the philosophies and why?
Progressive education is a pedagogical movement that began in the late nineteenth century and has persisted in various forms to the present. The term progressive was engaged to distinguish this education from the traditional curricula of the 19th century, which was rooted in classical preparation for the university and strongly differentiated by social class. By contrast, progressive education finds its roots in modern experience. Most progressive education programs have these qualities in common:
Educational theory
Progressive education can be traced back to the works of John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, both of whom are known as forerunners of ideas that would be developed by theorists such as John Dewey. Considered one of the first of the British empiricists, Locke believed that "truth and knowledge… arise out of observation and experience rather than manipulation of accepted or given ideas2 He further discussed the need for children to have concrete experiences in order to learn. Rousseau deepened this line of thinking in Emile, or On Education, where he argued that subordination of students to teachers and memorization of facts would not lead to an education.
Johann Bernhard Basedow
In Germany, Johann Bernhard Basedow (1724–1790) established the Philanthropinum at Dessau in 1774. He developed new teaching methods based on conversation and play with the child, and a program of physical development. Such was his success that he wrote a treatise on his methods, "On the best and hitherto unknown method of teaching children of noblemen".
Christian Gotthilf Salzmann
Christian Gotthilf Salzmann (1744–1811) was the founder of the Schnepfenthal institution, a school dedicated to new modes of education (derived heavily from the ideas of Jean-Jacques Rousseau). He wrote Elements of Morality, for the Use of Children, one of the first books translated into English by Mary Wollstonecraft.
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746–1827) was a Swiss pedagogue and educational reformer who exemplified Romanticism in his approach. He founded several educational institutions both in German- and French-speaking regions of Switzerland and wrote many works explaining his revolutionary modern principles of education. His motto was "Learning by head, hand and heart". His research and theories closely resemble those outlined by Rousseau in Emile. He is further considered by many to be the "father of modern educational science"His psychological theories pertain to education as they focus on the development of object teaching, that is, he felt that individuals best learned through experiences and through a direct manipulation and experience of objects. He further speculated that children learn through their own internal motivation rather than through compulsion. (See Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic motivation). A teacher's task will be to help guide their students as individuals through their learning and allow it to unfold naturally.
Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel (1782–1852) was a student of Pestalozzi who laid the foundation for modern education based on the recognition that children have unique needs and capabilities. He believed in "self-activity" and play as essential factors in child education. The teacher's role was not to indoctrinate but to encourage self-expression through play, both individually and in group activities. He created the concept of kindergarten.
Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776–1841) emphasized the connection between individual development and the resulting societal contribution. The five key ideas which composed his concept of individual maturation were Inner Freedom, Perfection, Benevolence, Justice, and Equity or Recompense.According to Herbart, abilities were not innate but could be instilled, so a thorough education could provide the framework for moral and intellectual development. In order to develop a child to lead to a consciousness of social responsibility, Herbart advocated that teachers utilize a methodology with five formal steps: "Using this structure a teacher prepared a topic of interest to the children, presented that topic, and questioned them inductively, so that they reached new knowledge based on what they had already known, looked back, and deductively summed up the lesson's achievements, then related them to moral precepts for daily living".
John Melchior Bosco (1815–1888) was concerned about the education of street children who had left their villages to find work in the rapidly industrialized city of Turin, Italy. Exploited as cheap labor or imprisoned for unruly behavior, Bosco saw the need for creating a space where they would feel at home. He called it an 'Oratory' where they could play, learn, share friendships, express themselves, develop their creative talents and pick up skills for gainful self-employment. With those who had found work, he set up a mutual-fund society (an early version of the Grameen Bank) to teach them the benefits of saving and self-reliance. The principles underlying his educational method that won over the hearts and minds of thousands of youth who flocked to his oratory were: 'be reasonable', 'be kind', 'believe' and 'be generous in service'. Today his method of education is practiced in nearly 3000 institutions set up around the world by the members of the Salesian Society he founded in 1873.
While studying for his doctorate in Göttingen in 1882–1883, Cecil Reddie was greatly impressed by the progressive educational theories being applied there. Reddie founded Abbotsholme School in Derbyshire, England, in 1889. Its curriculum enacted the ideas of progressive education. Reddie rejected rote learning, classical languages and corporal punishment. He combined studies in modern languages and the sciences and arts with a program of physical exercise, manual labour, recreation, crafts and arts. Schools modeling themselves after Abbotsholme were established throughout Europe, and the model was particularly influential in Germany. Reddie often engaged foreign teachers, who learned its practices, before returning home to start their own schools. Hermann Lietz an Abbotsholme teacher founded five schools (Landerziehungsheime für Jungen) on Abbotsholme's principles. Other people he influenced included Kurt Hahn, Adolphe Ferrière and Edmond Demolins. His ideas also reached Japan, where it turned into "Taisho-era Free Education Movement" (Taisho Jiyu Kyoiku Undo)
In the United States the "Progressive Education Movement", starting in the 1880s and lasting for sixty years, helped boost American public schools from a budding idea to the established norm. John Dewey, a principal figure in this movement from the 1880s to 1904, set the tone for educational philosophy as well as concrete school reforms. His thinking had been influenced by the ideas of Fröbel and Herbart. His reactions to the prevailing theories and practices in education, corrections made to these philosophies, and recommendations to teachers and administrators to embrace "the new education", provide a vital account of the history of the development of educational thinking in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Dewey placed pragmatism above moral absolutes and helped give rise to situational ethics. Beginning in 1897 John Dewey published a summary of his theory on progressive education in School Journal. His theoretical standpoints are divided into five sections outlined below.
Education according to Dewey is the "participation of the individual in the social consciousness of the race" (Dewey, 1897, para. 1). As such, education should take into account that the student is a social being. The process begins at birth with the child unconsciously gaining knowledge and gradually developing their knowledge to share and partake in society.
The educational process has two sides, the psychological and the sociological, with the psychological forming the basis. (Dewey, 1897). A child's own instincts will help develop the material that is presented to them. These instincts also form the basis of their knowledge with everything building upon it. This forms the basis of Dewey's assumption that one cannot learn without motivation.
Instruction must focus on the child as a whole for you can never be sure as to where society may end or where that student will be needed or will take them.
"Education fails because it neglects this fundamental principle of the school as a form of community life. It conceives the school as a place where certain information is to be given, where certain lessons are to be learned, or where certain habits are to be formed" (Dewey, 1897, para. 17) Dewey felt that as education is a social construct, it is, therefore, a part of society and should reflect the community.
"Education is the process of living and is not meant to be the preparation of future living", (Dewey, 1897), so the school must represent the present life. As such, parts of the student's home life (such as moral and ethical education) should take part in the schooling process. The teacher is a part of this, not as an authoritative figure, but as a member of the community who is there to assist the student.
According to Dewey, the curriculum in he schools should reflect that of society. The center of the school curriculum should reflect the development of humans in society. The study of the core subjects (language, science, history) should be coupled with the study of cooking, sewing, and manual training. Furthermore, he feels that "progress is not in the succession of studies but in the development of new attitudes towards, and new interests in, experience" (Dewey, 1897, para. 38)
The nature of method
The method is focused on the child's powers and interests. If the child is thrown into a passive role as a student, absorbing information, the result is a waste of the child's education. (Dewey, 1897). Information presented to the student will be transformed into new forms, images, and symbols by the student so that they fit with their development and interests. The development of this is natural. To repress this process and attempt to "substitute the adult for the child" (Dewey, 1897, para. 52) would weaken the intellectual curiosity of the child.
For Dewey, education, which regulates "the process of coming to share in the social consciousness," is the "only sure" method of ensuring social progress and reform (Dewey, 1897, para. 60). In this respect, Dewey foreshadows Social Reconstructionism, whereby schools are a means to reconstruct society. As schools become a means for social reconstruction, they must be given the proper equipment to perform this task and guide their students.
The American teacher Helen Parkhurst (1886–1973) developed the Dalton Plan at the beginning of the twentieth century with the goal of reforming the then current pedagogy and classroom management. She wanted to break the teacher-centered lockstep teaching. During her first experiment, which she implemented in a small elementary school as a young teacher in 1904, she noticed that when students are given freedom for self-direction and self-pacing and to help one another, their motivation increases considerably and they learn more. In a later experiment in 1911 and 1912, Parkhurst re-organized the education in a large school for nine- to fourteen-year-olds. Instead of each grade, each subject was appointed its own teacher and its own classroom. The subject teachers made assignments: they converted the subject matter for each grade into learning assignments.
In this way, learning became the students’ own work; they could carry out their work independently, work at their own pace and plan their work themselves. The classroom turned into a laboratory, a place where students are working, furnished and equipped as work spaces, tailored to meet the requirements of specific subjects. Useful and attractive learning materials, instruments and reference books were put within the students’ reach. The benches were replaced by large tables to facilitate co-operation and group instruction. This second experiment formed the basis for the next experiments, those in Dalton and New York, from 1919 onwards. The only addition was the use of graphs, charts enabling students to keep track of their own progress in each subject.
In the nineteen-twenties and nineteen-thirties, Dalton education spread throughout the world. There is no certainty regarding the exact numbers of Dalton schools, but there was Dalton education in America, Australia, England, Germany, the Netherlands, the Soviet Union, India, China and Japan. Particularly in the Netherlands, China and Japan, Dalton education has remained in existence. In recent years there has been a revival of international interest, particularly in England, Germany, the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
Rudolf Steiner (1869–1925) first described the principles of what was to become Waldorf education in 1907. He established a series of schools based on these principles beginning in 1919. The focus of the education is on creating a developmentally appropriate curriculum that holistically integrates practical, artistic, social, and academic experiences. There are more than a thousand schools and many more early childhood centers worldwide; it has also become a popular form of homeschooling.
Maria Montessori (1870–1952) began to develop her philosophy and methods in 1897. She based her work on her observations of children and experimentation with the environment, materials, and lessons available to them. She frequently referred to her work as "scientific pedagogy", arguing for the need to go beyond observation and measurement of students, to developing new methods to transform them. Although Montessori education spread to the United States in 1911 there were conflicts with the American educational establishment and was opposed by William Heard Kilpatrick. However Montessori education returned to the United States in 1960 and has since spread to thousands of schools there.
In 1914 the Montessori Society in England organised its first conference. Hosted by Rev Bertram Hawker, who had set-up, in partnership with his local elementary school in the Norfolk coastal village of East Runton, the first Montessori School in England. Pictures of this school, and its children, illustrated the 'Montessori's Own Handbook' (1914). Hawker had been impressed by his visit to Montessori's Casa dei Bambini in Rome, he gave numerous talks on Montessori's work after 1912, assisting in generating a national interest in her work.
He organised the Montessori Conference 1914 in partnership with Edmond Holmes, ex-Chief Inspector of Schools, who had written a government report on Montessori. The conference decided that its remit was to promote the 'liberation of the child in the school', and though inspired by Montessori, would encourage, support and network teachers and educationalists who sought, through their schools and methods, that aim. They changed their name the following year to New Ideals in Education. Each subsequent conference was opened with reference to its history and origin as a Montessori Conference recognising her inspiration, reports italicized the members of the Montessori Society in the delegate lists, and numerous further events included Montessori methods and case studies. Montessori, through New Ideals in Education, its committee and members, events and publications, greatly influenced progressive state education in England. (references to be added).
In July 1906, Ernest Thompson Seton sent Robert Baden-Powell a copy of his book The Birchbark Roll of the Woodcraft Indians. Seton was a British-born Canadian-American living in the United States. They shared ideas about youth training programs. In 1907 Baden-Powell wrote a draft called Boy Patrols. In the same year, to test his ideas, he gathered 21 boys of mixed social backgrounds and held a week-long camp in August on Brownsea Island in England. His organizational method, now known as the Patrol System and a key part of Scouting training, allowed the boys to organize themselves into small groups with an elected patrol leader. Baden Powell then wrote Scouting for Boys (London, 1908). The Brownsea camp and the publication of Scouting for Boys are generally regarded as the start of the Scout movement which spread throughout the world. Baden-Powell and his sister Agnes Baden-Powell introduced the Girl Guides in 1910.
Reference:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_education
Q.2 What types of interaction emerge among various institutions of socialization? How do media influence the socializaiton process of a child?
TYPES OF SOCIAL INTERACTION
Social interaction is the basis of the whole social order. Social group is the product of social interaction. Interaction is the real foundation of all social processes, structure, social groups, and functions. In sociology, interaction is the gate of its knowledge.
A fundamental feature of social life is social interaction, or the ways in which people act with other people and react to how other people are acting. To recall our earlier paraphrase of John Donne, no one is an island. This means that all individuals, except those who choose to live truly alone, interact with other individuals virtually every day and often many times in any one day. For social order, a prerequisite for any society, to be possible, effective social interaction must be possible. Partly for this reason, sociologists interested in microsociology have long tried to understand social life by analyzing how and why people interact they way they do.
According to Young and Mack there are two types of social interaction between people and societies
Direct or Physical Interaction: it involves physical action among the individuals. Beating, biting, thrashing, pulling, pushing, killing, scratching, boxing, wrestling, kissing etc. are the examples of direct interaction. Two teams playing match and a war between the forces of two countries are also examples of this interaction. This Types influences other by physical action in different ways.
Symbolic Interaction: There are different types of relationships between people. It involves the use of language and symbols. It means communication through a common language is symbolic process. This is the most common method of human societies. Human beings convey their ideas through language and it is completed by reciprocal response. The methods of communication devised by man are sharp and effective than these of animals. All cultures develop, expand and change only through language symbolic interaction. Without language no culture can live. There is no culture in animals due to the fact that there is no common language among them. Through language man stores its previous experiences and transmits them to the following generation with a change.
Man uses instruments to facilitate this. Telephone, wireless, telegraph, postal system, rail, road, sea and air services all are various means of communication and transportation. Gestures are also symbolic ones. Deaf and dumb convey their ideas through voice, and gestures of hands and eyes.
It is found in various forms among human societies
Between individual and individual: It is the interaction between at least two persons. The doctor and the patient, the mother and the child, the customer and the shopkeeper are the various examples in this case.
Between individual and group: It operates between one person and more. A teacher teaching his class a speaker addressing the audience, an Imam leading prayers are its common examples.
Between group and group: This is found between two groups of people like two teams playing match, two forces fighting against each other, two delegates discussing an issue.
Between individuals and culture: This form is found when the people listen to radio, see television, read newspaper enjoy pictures and observe exhibitions. Radio, T.V. cinema, newspapers, books, exhibitions, theatre, drama, circus, fairs and other socio-cultural activities are included in the Culture of a society. People have social interaction and social relationship with these media of mass communication and get social change in their life. The people change these media as they require on the other hand. In this way reciprocal process between the people and the culture goes on.
Media is one of the main agents of socialization that affects youth the most. Young adults are majority time are surrounded by the media, which brings me to my main question, "How is Mass Media Affecting Socialization in Children and Young Adults in Albania?" To understand this question one must know and understand what socialization is. The socialization process is a very dramatic impact on a child's life. Socialization is a "Continuing process whereby an individual acquires a personal identity and learns the norms, values, behavior, and social skills appropriate to his or her social position". Mass media has enormous effects on our attitudes and behavior which makes it an important contributor to the socialization process. in some ways mass media can serve as a positive function. It helps there to be more diversity, we can learn more about things that are going on in different countries. It can help you learn new things you did not know. Sadly Media can serve as a negative function in young people life. Young people want to be accepted by society and the media creates the ideal image that tells you what the characteristics are to be accepted and to be able to fit in with society. They show what you should look like, how you can look like this, and where to go to buy these things that will make you look right. This is why many young women deal with anorexia because they want to look like the ideal type that the media displays. Media also influences young people to misbehave. Media shows that being deviant makes you cool and look tough and that it's okay to do deviant things. Statistics show that when young people watch violence on television it increases their appetites to become involved in violence. It opens their minds to violence and makes them aware of crimes and people acting deviant. Many people think that the media does not play a role in the socialization process as much as family, peers and education. But in fact the media plays a strong role in the socialization process. The aim of this study is to see the positive and negative effects that the Albanian media plays in the socialization process in Albania.
Reference:
http://studylecturenotes.com/social-interaction-definition-elements-types-forms/
https://ideas.repec.org/a/eur/ejserj/22.html
Q.3 Why pshochological consideration are important in curriculum development and content selection? Explain.
It is important to understand psychological foundation of curriculum because psychology explain how a person learns. Since teaching-learning process is taking place between living beings, psychology is important to site an example, suppose I, as a teacher ask a student “Why were you absent yesterday?”
He may get very happy that I recognized his absence that means he is important for me. Some other child might get irritated by the same question as he took as my interference in his life.
There is no certainty that all individuals will react exactly same to same stimulus but these are some generalized principles of psychology which are applicable to one and all. It has been proved empirically.
These psychological principles act as cement in the teaching-learning process. A teacher must have good understanding of child psychology to be effective.
Psychology provides those elements which unify Learning process. Some philosophers have simply said that teacher simply gives information. It becomes learning according to child’s psychology.
Hence, it is very important to understand basic psychological needs of the learners and reflecting on how these needs can be translated into curriculum.
Psychological bases of curriculum
Reference:
https://www.owlgen.in/discuss-about-psychological-foundations-of-curriculum-development/
https://physicscatalyst.com/graduation/bases-of-curriculum/
Q.4 Discuss "Education as investment". Also keeping in view the present scenario, explain "Who pays for Higher Education in Pakistan.
Today investment in education is one of the most important factors of the development in any modern country. Our paper finds out of the points of human capital and analyses the proceeds of investment in education. Investment in education is a necessary investment that certifies higher productivity in the economy. To measure the proceeds on the educational investment, the cost-benefit analysis is usually used including the calculation and assessment of all the relevant costs and benefits. Estimations show that the return on the investment in education is higher than that on the investment in physical capital. Investment on education has both private and public returns-individual and social. Individuals with more human capital manage to be very efficient at their employment search, and less suffer from unemployment. Most educated people have high labor productivity that effects on the profit of the firm and its market evaluation. Due to investment in education the profit recently, the macro-economic situation in most EU countries has changed significantly. At the EU level, in 2004 the main components of public spending were social protection, general public services and health, and education. It can change the priority set by an economy. It can reflect country-specific objectives in spending spheres. In 2005 nearly 90% of investment in education at European level was covered by public sources. All these transactions are included in the indicator on public investment as a percentage of Gross Domestic Product. There are many variations between European countries in this point. In 2005 percentage of GDP was higher than the EU average in 2004. Public investment on education can suggest a complementary outline on the public effort made by a country to support its educational system. Many European countries are trying to increase the public investment on education lately. In some countries (Romania, Hungary or Cyprus) the public sources allocated to education shown in comparative PPS have witnesses significant increases between 2000 and 2005 (over 10% annually). High standard annual increases in the absolute figures of public investment on education between 2000 and 2005 were noted as well in Ireland and Greece and in more than half of the Members States the standard increase was at least 5% annually.
Private investment on education is becoming important in Europe. Between 2000 and 2005 in almost all countries the private sources of funding for all compound levels of education have increased. In some countries (Finland Sweden) educational structures continue to be mostly financed from public sources and less than 5% is covered from private sources for another group of countries ( France, Italy, Lithuania, Poland) private sources of investment accounted for about 10% of total investment on educational institutions. In four member states (the UK, Germany, Cyprus, Slovakia) the investment in education from private sources was 16-20%. The evolution which is available at country level clearly describes the role of the indicators used in the model, thus other variations across countries can play a role in explanations of the results. Productivity of investment in education can be affected by different specific factors. More often these factors are beyond the control of public authorities but they are important in the analysis and neglecting them may lead to angled measures of efficiency. For example, the educational competence of adult population could influence the educational outcomes. Investment in education is beneficial in a variety of ways, both for individuals and for society as a whole. Secondary education has been displayed to contribute to individual returns and economic development. It is associated with advanced health, equity and social conditions. And the quality of secondary education affects the levels above and below it primary and terrier education. Education in enhances individual productivity, as measures by the well-known link between educational competence and personal income. At the national level education plays an important role in cherishing economic development.
Modern economies depend on the creation, acquisition, distribution, and use of knowledge and this demands an educated and skilled population. Besides there is growing affirmation that perhaps half or even more aggregate economic development is driven by increases in factor productivity rather than by factor increase in either capital or labor in this regard. In many countries the demand for workers with secondary schooling has been associated with skill- based technological change. Barro (1999) reducing a panel of about 100 countries observed between 1960 and 1995, finds that economic development is positively concerned to the starting level of overage years of adult male school attainment at secondary and higher levels. His explanation is that there is a strong effect of secondary and higher schooling on the loosing of technology, developing countries may be able to achieve increases in factor productivity through technology transfer from global “leaders”. It may happen through trade, foreign direct investment, and learning through international supportive chairs. Much of the technology developed in the leader countries is very skills-intensive. Secondary education is a basic part of a virtuous circle of economic development within the context of a world-wide knowledge economy. Many studies have pointed that a large pool of workers with secondary education is essential for knowledge spillover to take place and for captivating imports of technologically advanced goods and foreign direct investment. In a study on education and technology gaps in Latin Americade Ferranti found that the amplitude of the difference in computer penetration between Latin America and the East Asian “tigers” can be explained not only by differences in the share of trade with OECD but also, and most important by the proportion of the workforce with secondary schooling. This explains why the demand for educated and skilled workers has not increased in Brazil, because it has lower schooling levels compared with other countries in Latin America. Historically, the countries that have experienced the most rapid increases in educational achievement as well as outstanding economic. Performance, have pursued balanced upgrade. Investments in secondary school can also be upholder on the basis of divisional arguments, although the case here is somewhat abstractive. Further research is important to establish the distributional conclusion of secondary school expansion. Children who receive more education now may have higher income in the future, and investments in schooling can change the future distribution of per capital income or of consumption. “Simple” simulations of the effect of educational expansion on the Gini coefficient are feasible. Such simulations essentially compare the present distribution of income with the distribution of income if sm additional number of workers in the future are more educated. Unfortunately, these simulations allow only very rough measures of the impact of school expansion on distributional parameters. Expounding the coverage of secondary school, other things being equal will depress the income of workers with secondary education. The extent of changes of educations depends on the degree to which workers with secondary educations are substitutes in production education for those with primary or university education.
The exact value of it in developing countries is largely unknown.. There has also been an alteration in the composition of government funding, as more states began to invest in pre-k education for 3-an-4 year olds. Now states provide 15 percent of the total and the federal government provides 25 percent. States have become creative more and more independent in choosing educational mode. However, due to some important changes in the whole, states are in a budget squeeze, and this has limited financing for early care and education(they are low income parents, stay off welfare and care for their children)
Conversely, the less-well qualified are facing deteriorating job prospects. Across OECD countries, 42% are not employed because of a lack of the upper secondary education. If the demands for education and qualifications continues to rise as labor market prospects weaken. Our research also shows that the reality is that participation among people with strong proficiency is significantly higher than among the least qualified, such that these opportunities often do not reach those who need them most.
The current attention on efficiency and productivity of school education is important and necessary, especially to parents, but it can not be mentioned for adequate government funding of schooling goals Governments are responsible for demonstration of the value for money in public spending. Outgoings on schooling should be viewed as an investment in the future not a drain on the public purse.
Demonstrating value for money in public spending can not be the means or the ends of schooling.
Building human capital through educational development, advancing technology, and improved capital facilities to foster professional skills is important but hard to measure.
Reference:
https://www.ukessays.com/essays/economics/investment-in-education-public-investment-on-education-economics-essay.php
Q.5 Differentiate between humanistic and scientific thinking. Further explain the art of scientific basis.
Reason has a pivotal role in the humanist worldview. Reasoning is more than the application of logic to scientific theories. We use reasoning in everyday life, too. Humanists believe that the use of reason – to form and assess our ideas – is also crucial when approaching moral questions, even some aesthetic questions, and that reason must lie behind any real understanding of life.
Elsewhere on this site you can read about humanist thought through the ages and humanist philosophy today. Our website Understanding Humanism contains ideas for assemblies and toolkits for the classroom which reveal more about humanist thinking for younger people.
In the following section, we focus on thinking that has been encapsulated specifically for popular consumption, in Thought For The Day-style broadcasts, columns and articles. These are, in other words, thoughts to make you think.
Humanists have long campaigned for an occasional humanist slot on BBC Radio 4’s Thought for the Day – after all, religious people are not the only ones with ethical insights into the issues of the day and religious people are not the only listeners to the Today programme. While the BBC slowly considers our arguments, humanist speakers participate in similar slots in local media and offer their thoughts on life and contemporary issues to a range of audiences.
Below you can find a selection of radio broadcasts, samples of other talks and newspaper “thoughts for the week”.
Humanists are free-thinking individuals and the views expressed in these items are not necessarily shared by all humanists or reflected in British Humanist Association policy. Some talks are determinedly atheist, while others are explicitly or implicitly humanist – on “life, the universe and everything”.
The Humanist Society Scotland (HSS) and Humanists UK have occasionally podcasted their own humanist “Thoughts for the Day”, an initiative launched on Darwin Day 2007 (12 February) and now available at www.thoughtfortheworld.org.
Podcasters in the first week included A C Grayling, Stewart Lee, Julian Baggini, and Nigel Warburton,Gillian Stewart, a humanist celebrant for the HSS, and Kate Hudson, chair of CND.
The series continued in 2008 with four weeks of new podcasts. You can listen again to all the podcasts.
At the height of the Atheist Bus Campaign in January 2009 Ariane Sherine was invited to give a “Thought For the Afternoon” on the BBC Radio 4 iPM programme.
Radio 4 had previously allowed Richard Dawkins one “alternative” Thought for the Day slot in August 2002, broadcast a considerable time after the normal Thought For the Day slot.
In 1996, Nicolas Walter of the Rationalist Press Association was invited to give five talks in the BBC World Service “Words of Faith” series – his contribution was entitled “Living Without Religion”. The talks were published in New Humanist.
In January 1955 psychologist, broadcaster and humanist Margaret Knight stunned post-war Britain by suggesting in two talks – “Morals Without Religion” – on the BBC’s Home Service (now Radio 4), that moral education should be uncoupled from religious education.
Margaret Nelson of Suffolk Humanists has mused on subjects as diverse as Shakespeare, badgers, women’s rights, Halloween and ghosts, the weather, books and holidays, for BBC Radio Suffolk’sThought for the Day since 1995. Margaret and fellow humanist David Mitchell regularly broadcast on Radio Suffolk. With reference to critics’ fears about secular contributors to such slots, Margaret says: “I’m in my 10th year of doing Thought for the Day, and the world hasn’t come to an end.”
At some point in your student career, you may have spent hours “learning” something, only to realize you were memorizing facts and not truly thinking about what you were studying. When you take time to reflect on what you are learning, do you always agree with the information? Has taking the time to truly understand a topic ever changed your perspective?
Critical thinking, or systematically evaluating information before accepting or rejecting it, enables individuals to move beyond memorization of facts to truly learning about the world. The basis of scientific study is critical thought. Although fields such as biology are often used synonymously with the term, science actually refers to studying anything through objective, critical thinking about observations of the world.
Science strives to provide objective, testable answers to questions naturally arising from observation. It avoids subjective questions and answers better addressed by religion and society. Although scientific theories often spark controversy in human societies, a scientific hypothesis is meant solely to provide a testable, falsifiable explanation for observed natural phenomena. As you study biology, carefully consider each hypothesis or theory based on the observations and other available data before drawing conclusions.
Traditionally, the scientific method has been taught as a linear progression from observation to hypothesis to experimentation to conclusion. In reality, the scientific process follows a general framework in which observation is critical throughout. Focusing on the progression of logical thought involved in both science and everyday life is more important than following steps in a “scientific method.”
Although observation and investigation are extremely valuable, science progresses only with innovation and creativity. If every scientist only proposed existing ideas, how could we improve understanding of the world? A hypothesis, or logical explanation for a set of observations, provides a framework for continued investigation of a situation.
Scientific processes require a hypothesis be derived by objective analysis of existing data, but moving from facts to a logical explanation of the facts often requires creativity. A hypothesis must be falsifiable, able to be proven incorrect by experimentation or continued observation. The nature of the scientific process requires that no scientific hypothesis can ever be proven true because it is impossible to know every piece of relevant data. Scientific knowledge is growing exponentially, and future observations or experiments could change what we understand about any topic. An objective explanation of existing facts could be proven false at any time by discovery of new facts contradicting the hypothesis.
The classical, step-wise scientific method involves inductive reasoning to develop a hypothesis deriving most logically from available data. Hypotheses may be generalized, but are usually specific to what can be observed and analyzed in a reasonable time frame. Deductive reasoning generates a specific set of testable predictions. Finally, testing specific predictions may disprove, support, or modify the hypothesis for additional testing.
Some scientific methodologies focus on a discovery process, using observations and extensive data analysis to develop new or global ideas. Hypotheses derived from this kind of scientific method are frequently innovative, using inductive reasoning to draw conclusions that change the way scientists view a topic. The goal of discovery-based science is to focus on the observations and data alone, avoiding the potential bias of seeking data to match an existing hypothesis.
In scientific research, complex or multifaceted hypotheses may encompass several supported, specific hypotheses or may be derived from the synthesis of a large volume of existing data. Because of their complex nature, years of testing may be required to collect new data to support or disprove this kind of hypothesis. With enough supporting evidence, a multifaceted hypothesis is designated a theory.
Art of Scientific basis
We all utilize scientific thinking as we go about our daily lives, such as when we peer out the window to assist us in deciding what to wear, when we experiment with mixing ingredients to bake a perfectly moist cake or when we attempt to figure out why the tomato plants aren’t thriving this season. In the book, “The Art of Scientific Investigation,” W.I.B. Beveridge wrote, “The most important instrument in research must always be the mind of man.” The use of scientific thinking helps us make sense of the world.
Learning skills to support scientific thinking is an important part of a young child’s development. As children progress into adulthood, using scientific thinking truly becomes an art. When encountered with a problem, knowing which skills to utilize, the manner in which to use them and how to work through a process in a logical fashion are essential to growth in understanding. Scientific thinking skills include observing, asking questions, making predictions, testing ideas, documenting data and communicating thoughts.
As parents and educators, we can model scientific thinking and provide opportunities for young children to experiment, explore and engage in science play and practices in order to build a solid foundation for future application of the scientific inquiry process. Michigan State University Extension recommends the following ideas to encourage the development of scientific thinking in young children.
The outdoors provides endless experiences for discovery play. Use your senses to feel, listen, smell and taste all nature has to offer. Catch and observe insects, build your insect a home with moss, twigs and special discoveries or lay on your back, close your eyes and make a game of identifying the sounds around you.
The goal with questioning during science inquiry will not be to focus on reaching the correct answer, but instead to encourage young children to communicate their thoughts and ideas based on their current level of understanding. Over time, they will slowly build on what they know as they continue to make sense of the world they live in. Young children are naturally curious about science. Asking questions such as, “What do you notice about the pot of water boiling on the stove?” or “What do you know or wonder about that honey bee on the flower?” can often lead to some interesting insights and discussion, which provoke further investigation.
Art can be a useful method to remember and refer back to previous experiences. Use your camera to capture discoveries and create a book. Provide your child with a nature journal or better yet, each of you keep a journal to share in the experience. Combine natural materials with art materials to create nature collages, paintings or sculptures utilizing your findings. Revisit these works of art and retell the story of the adventures you shared together in creating them.
The children’s books “What Do You Do with an Idea?” by Kobi Yamada and “Rosie Revere, Engineer” by Andrea Beatty are brilliantly written and illustrated to inspire young children to dream up a project while demonstrating what can happen when you believe in and challenge yourself. “Loose Parts,” a term coined by architect Simon Nicholson, can lead to hours of creative play and experimentation. Gather materials on a nature hike or browse through your recycling bins for tubes and containers.
Programs in your area that provide young children the opportunity to collaborate with peers can increase content knowledge, as well as support social and emotional growth. Outside programs can supplement and help young children build connections to the learning taking place at home or in the classroom. A variety of exposures to quality science programs and facilities assist in forming positive attitudes towards the field.
Look for science-related programs offered by your local nature center or library. MSU Extension offers a farm and nature-based Farm Sprouts preschool program for 3-to-5-year-old children at MSU Tollgate Farm and Education Center in Novi, Michigan. There are also opportunities for young children to participate in science experiences at the Michigan’s 4-H Children’s Garden, MSU Museum and Abrams Planetarium on the main campus in East Lansing, Michigan.
Engaging young children in scientific thinking can lead to growth and learning not only for the intended audience, but also for those working with them. Be sure to take advantage of those great science moments as they arise or better yet, head outside and create your own!